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An In-Depth Look at Marketing Plans

Introduction

In today’s fast shifting economic realm and in the midst of technological developments, large or small scale businesses have to calculate and plan ahead in order to succeed. While there are many multifaceted elements that add to setting up, sustaining and refining any business, a significant tool that is extensively used is the marketing plan. This paper aims to analyze and discuss the full spectrum of the fundamentals of developing a marketing plan by presenting and analyszing the structures and elements that constitute it.

Developing a comprehensive marketing plan is always a challenging task because it is not one-sided in perspective, but draws on the complex elements of psychology, economics and sociology. As people evolve, so do their inclinations and dispositions. Marketing is highly reliant on developing relationships with people, synergizing layers upon layers of experiences with molding brands and public image, and leveraging available resources for the most favorable profit mark-up. It is therefore indispensable to plan and develop a well-organized marketing plan, in order to be ahead and be ready for changes and trends that may emerge from time to time.

While the end-result of developing a marketing plan is ensuring that a business maintains an optimal relationship with its customer base, it thrives on the idea of reaping profits at any economic climate. Planning is a key element and a primary principle in finding a competitive advantage and nurturing sustained growth. If one element of the plan is missing or done incorrectly, it is possible for the business to lose profit.

Role and Nature of Marketing Plan

In order to fully understand the role of a marketing plan in a business, it is first advantageous to start by defining and contrasting it with the business plan. A business plan is wider in scope as it covers strategies and objectives for the whole company, encompassing all undertakings and roles. A business plan is the very first plan that is initiated and analyzed before creating any more new plans. Under a business plan, there are many sub-plans, such as marketing plans, financial plans, sales plans, distribution plans, purchasing plans and IT plans. A marketing plan outlines all the necessary factors that span from understanding market drivers, studying market trends, comparing different media channels for branding and campaigns, just to name a few. The business plan exists to provide the reason or reasons as to why the enterprise operates and remains unchanged, unless there is a necessary step that needs to be taken when operations change. The marketing plan does not remain stagnant; it is built upon learning how to respond to market trends and drivers.

The connection between the marketing plan and the business plan is a vital one. Developing a well-organized marketing plan provides clarity as to where the business is headed to, therefore making it a key driver of a business’ performance (Zoltners, Sinha and Lorimer, 2009). It can be said that without a marketing plan, the business lacks an integral element in meetings its targets. Ferrell and Hartline (2011, p. 32) compares “the marketing plan to a road map, in the sense that it implements the marketing strategy. It instructs employees as to their roles and functions in fulfilling the plan.” The best marketing requires preparation.

Developing a marketing plan is an important part of the business plan but is not a one-time task. It is a continuous process that covers the strategies of an organization and is always connected to the organization’s objectives. Because of the volatility of the market, it is increasingly more important to plan.

Reid and Bojanik (2010, p. 166) have provided some important aspects of consideration when creating a tactical marketing plan. These include finding out the market share, analyzing the organization’s strengths and weaknesses, analyzing promotions retrospectively and identifying sales strategies to use during non-peak period. In order to create an optimal marketing plan it is always recommended to have a thorough understanding of the business plan. All activities, projects and components of the marketing plan should be aligned with the business plan.

Structure of a Marketing plan

Not all marketing plans will have the same lay-out as there is no universal template, this will depend on the size of the company, its objectives, its strategies and its focus. Typically all marketing plans will share common elements. These key elements will be detailed in order to attain a clearer understanding of the topic. Tassiopolous (2008, p. 133) identified the main elements as an executive summary, situational analysis, marketing strategies and implementation.

When developing a marketing plan, Baron and Keller (2007, p. 59) recommend an approach that utilizes coming up with answers to important questions. The first is relevant to product (“What product do I produce and sell”), the pricing decision (““What price do I need to sell my products for to meet my objectives?”), the methods decision (“How do I establish a price for my product?”, and the merchandising decision or “When, where and how do I make delivery of the product to the buyer?”)

The executive summary gives an overview of the plan, and also contains information on what actions will be taken in order for the plan to be effectively implemented. Objectives that are measurable must be identified. Each objective should be measurable in order to determine if the plan is successful. A widely accepted way of creating goals is using the SMART Model, which according to Goodlet (2011) are “ Be specific about your goals; measure what you want to achieve (state your revenue, growth, and profitability goals); explain how you plan and want to attain those goals; be realistic about your goals, don’t set standards so high that it is impossible to reach your goals; and, make your goals be time-bound, set a schedule and stick to it.”

An analysis of the product vis-à-vis the market setting is another integral element in the marketing plan. This part of the plan will contain information on the market trends and forecasts as well as the buyers’ habits and inclinations. This part of the plan necessitates that there is a clear understanding of the current business situation as this will help the organization positions itself in terms of how it can fare alongside market trends and challenges.

Elements of a marketing Plan

An all-inclusive marketing plan will seek to understand factors such as the current market position of the organization in comparison with competitors. Through the use of SMART goal setting, an organization can leverage strategies that will work in their favor. The marketing plan should also contain information that covers distribution costs, manufacturing costs, advertising fees and related expenses.

SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) analysis that provides a realistic review internal and external factors that can affect results. Tassiopolous (2008) further points out that the SWOT analysis has been extensively acknowledged as a simple structure for assessing the strategic position of an organization in implementing its plans. Analyzing the profiles of competitors is another segment that forms part of the structure of the marketing plan. Ryans (2007) argues that there are five points to look into when completing a competitor analysis. These are: listing the competitors and their products or services, their strengths and weaknesses. It is also important to know what marketing mix they use. Lastly, knowing the market outlook forms part of the competitor analysis. Some of the tools that can be used to delve into competitor analysis are the traditional methods such as going through the competitors’ quarterly and annual reports, press releases and advertising.

The key to the competitor analysis is a comparison of the specific features and values of the competitor’s products and services. Greenfield (2010) suggests using customer satisfaction surveys through a third party. It is an ingenious way of knowing how the customers perceive the competitor’s strengths and weaknesses. When putting together this list, Hisrich (2004) advises that the list should be objective. Some of the tools that can be used to identify competitors’ strengths and weakness are through going to their websites or by reaching out to journalists and consultants.

Writing a competitive analysis can be a perplexing exercise. However it is through this that an organization can learn about how they can position themselves in the market sector that they are intending to get into or improve to present more value for their customers. It is also about measuring trends and being honest with leveraging tools to get market share.

The next section focuses on developing marketing strategies that must be outlined clearly and in detail. This process includes formulating mission and marketing objectives, analysing how to position the organization among competitors in the market sector in order to gain a competitive edge and introducing marketing mix. Cohen (2006) and Hatton (2010) stipulate that the following broad factors can be used in determining market objectives: “increasing market segment, increasing market productivity, expanding current markets, developing new product A marketing plan brings together all relevant market factors and identifies the strategies and actions required to achieve your sales goals for existing and future markets, developing new markets for existing products and finding an initial market position.”

Moreover, the marketing plan should include details on its marketing strategies. A wealth of research body shows the most common strategies include the 4ps of marketing (price, product, promotion and place). First introduced by McCarthy in the 1960s, the traditional 4Ps of the marketing mix is widely used and remain popular. The management of an organization must make use of different strategies that involved these four elements.

Although companies will differ in how they present their marketing plans, there are certain common fundamentals. Gilligan & Hird (1986, p. 166) points out these elements, namely “stakeholders’ expectations, internal organization inspections that point out the assets and flaws, prospects and threats that can be found externally, the goals of the organization, strategies that can be taken up by different sections of the organization and alternative strategies.”

It is necessary to identify the target market, determine which products or services are targeted for them, define a market position, study how to price these products or services, and determine which the best ways to deliver these. Only after all the elements of the marketing plan have been understood and developed will it be feasible to create strategies for advertising and promotion.

In developing promotion and advertising strategies, it is important to first understand what message the organization wants to send and what medium should be used. The message should address the needs and wants of an organization’s targeted demographic. It is critical to first identify a predicament and then formulate alternatives to deliver a solution. The purpose of any promotion or advertising is to enlighten, influence, remind existing customers or create new customers.

When identifying the target market there is some literature that recommends getting all the details of the market segments, such as the age, sex, racial and ethnic background. These variables can also be used alongside identifying the accurate training for the organization’s employees. Because marketing is about people’s relations, it is important for employees to know their customers in order to sell their products.

The next section involves determining the appropriate media in which the plans can be delivered. For example, a fitness company attracting young customers can utilize social networking site. Another important avenue in delivering promotions is simply by using an organization’s sales staff. If they are proficient with the current promotions they can easily advertise them to walk-in customers. It is also important to set a budget, which is a significant component of a marketing plan. Since most types of advertising are paid for, there should be an initial understanding of the budgetary limitations prior to determining the factors, resources and activities that can be implemented.

Links between Marketing Plan Elements

As per the aspects discussed above it may be concluded that elements in marketing plan are not independent but interconnected in a manner that all aspects affect one another. This aspect can be observed in the fact that marketing plans generally have a sequence in analysis with regards to the elements or sections encompassed.

Many researchers have emphasized the importance of understanding the difference between a strategic marketing plan as opposed to a tactical marketing plan. McDonald and Wilson (2011, p. 30) points out that the first difference lies in the covered period, where a strategic marketing plan comes from a careful examination of the organization’s marketing objectives and usually delineates strategies in the next three to five years and a tactical marketing plan covers a shorter period of time. This is why it is important to draw up a strategic plan before preparing to write the tactical marketing plan. Because marketing is complex, it is first necessary to understand the market segments and positioning products before a plan on how to effectively respond to competition and shifting situations can be done. How an organization can respond to these elements correspond to its strategy and would normally contain a significant component of the marketing mix, namely product, price, promotion and place or distribution.

A few questions that should be answered prior to setting up the appropriate budget would be identifying what particular problem does the project address, it is key to consider what problem the product and/or service is solving for the existing or prospective customers; identifying the market opportunity, this should include covering the overall size of the market, in terms of units and dollar value; and discussion of the market niche or segment, which includes the composition of the market in the geography that is being targeted, the products/services that will be provided;.

In a fully delegated management structure, the chief executives and top management who are involved in the strategic planning should approve to the components of the final marketing plan. The subsequent activities on how to implement departmental operation plans linked back to the marketing plan are then headed by specific department heads or team managers.

Assumptions of Marketing Plan

Some people mistakenly assume that a marketing plan only delineates an organization’s promotion and advertising strategies. Fleming (2000) supports this when she supposes “Advertising is only a small part of marketing. Yet, it is important to realize that most successful businesses are relationship-oriented organizations.” It is easy to wrongly assume that the most important element of a good marketing plan is the advertising and promotion strategies. Advertising and promotion are both integral parts of a marketing plan but there are several other elements that come into play.

Creating a marketing plan can help a business focus on their high-priority activities that will likely generate more clients quickly. The general assumption that a marketing plan can only be done once when the business starts is also incorrect. Some markets are volatile and market trends may emerge at any period of time, therefore any business should be alert and ready to revise its marketing plan as necessary. The key element of a successful marketing plan is to identify the customers. It is essential to have an understanding of their likes, dislikes and expectations. Another important factor is identifying competitors’ strengths and weaknesses. Both of these factors may change over time as these are not fixed variables. It is therefore important to keep updated about customers and their preferences. When it comes to competitor awareness, it is critical that a business knows what the competitor has lined up on its promotions, products and services. For instance a small-time business may receive funding from a bank or find new partners and launch big scale promotions.

Conclusion

With all the available literature on marketing plan, it is conclusive to say that marketing plans are important tools for businesses that forms part of their total business plan. Not only is the marketing plan a useful tool for laying down goals on paper, allocating budget, time and resources towards attaining goals but it is a springboard for detailing strategies.

According to Callum (2010) the “internet has revolutionized advertising,” as a result many organizations capitalize on firming up their brand as well as increasing their marketing presence from local to global settings. Some of the recent tools with regard to the internet that are being incorporated into marketing plans toady include advertising on different high traffic websites that are frequented by an organization’s target market, advertising in blogs and monthly e-newsletters and incorporation of search engine optimization. For some organizations, it is useful to take account of support from a marketing or public relations company or agent who can render assistance in arranging and guarding their products and services as well as observing and assessing their advertising efforts.

Marketing plans are detailed strategies that organizations can use to help them attain their goals. Decision making is a big part of creating a marketing plan; choosing the best course of action should always be included in the final marketing plan. It is critical that marketing executives have a thorough understanding of the elements that constitute a marketing plan, how they are linked and what makes them essential, dynamic ever changing company tools.

References:

Baron, R. and Keller, T. Developing a Solid Marketing Plan. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press

Callum, C. (2010) May I Help You? Great Customer Service Small Businesses. South Australia: Griffin Press

Cohen, W. (2006) The Marketing Plan. NY, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

Ferrell, O. & Hartline, M. (2011). Marketing Strategies, 7^th edn. Mason, OH: Cengage Learning

Fleming, L. (2000) Excel HSC: Business Studies. Sydney, NSW: Pascal Press

Gilligan, C. & Hird, M. (1986) International Marketing: Strategy and Management. Wolfeboro, NH: Croom Helm

Goodlet, B. Generating More Profits The Easy Way. 10 October 2011.Retrieved at http://www.infotoday.com/mls/marketing/how-to.htm.

Greendfield, A. (2010) A Guide on Implementing Strategic Marketing Plans. CA: Routledge

Hatton, A. (2010) The Definitive Guide to Marketing Planning: The Fast Track to Intelligent Marketing Planning and Implementation for Executives. CA: Financial Times Prentice-Hall

Hisrich, R. (2004) Small Business Solutions: How to Fix and Prevent the 13 Biggest Problems that Derail Business. NY McGraw-Hill, Inc.

McDonald, M. & Wilson, H. (2011) Marketing Plans: How to Prepare, How to Use Them. 7^th edn., West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Reid, R. & Bojanik, D. (2010) Hospitality Marketing Management. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Ryans, J. (2007). The Big Sell: Capitalizing on the Power of Advertisement. San Francisco, CA: Ceta, Ltd.

Tassiopolous, D. (2008) New Tourism VentUres: An Entrepreneurial and Managerial Approach. Cape Town, South Africa: Juta & Co.

Zoltners, A., Sinha, P. & Lorimer, E. (2009) Building a Winning Sales Force: Poweful Strategies for Driving High Performance NY: Amacom Books

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Planning is a crucial element in running a successful event, therefore it is essential to come up with a detailed planning list that outlines all the necessary elements in staging an event. This design brief outlines all the fundamental elements in ensuring that the awarding ceremony for volunteers of Melrose Home Children’s Aid Society is held and celebrated in an orderly and entertaining fashion.

From identifying the theme and venue for the event to managing risks during the event day, this brief also lists the core values of the event, shows a map and floor plan of the venue, includes a projection of the itemized costs to put up the event, identifies the audience and the stakeholders as well as explains how their needs are satisfied.

Logistics including security and risk management are outlined in this brief, as they are vital elements in ensuring the success of the event.

Further, this brief includes the core programme details which focus on the awarding and other celebratory aspects of the events comprising of the performances by the children of Melrose Home Children’s Aid Society. A timeline for the programme is included showing the specific activities for the program to be successful.

In addition, the programme details included in this brief are elaborated to show that they are all tied up to the event’s theme and core objectives. Other elements such as the menu from the contracted caterer is also shown as well as the details of other contracted service providers, namely the tentage, tables and chairs arrangement, audio and visual contractor as well as the host for the event.

The full version is available on demand.

Position Paper

Social change can come from numerous forces both inside and outside a community and when these changes are appropriated into everyday life, they become part of a culture. In America, it is inevitable for customs and habits to be influenced by other cultures given the diverse groups that create their imprint on societal change.

During the Exploration exercise of recording everything I have consumed for one week (appendix 1), I found that the majority of the food I have listed down are not American in origin but are now considered typical American food. Examples of which are pizza, California roll and tacos, which have origins from other cultures but have been adapted in the common American diet that they also have different versions in different states or towns. Pizza, which is widely acknowledged as an Italian invention, has been enjoyed by Americans and indeed has prompted varieties such as New York Pizza or California Pizza. Another popular American food is tacos, which in America is known to be a part of Tex-Mex cuisine, which have influences from Mexico but have been adapted and adjusted to suit the American taste buds. While I know that they are influenced by other cultures, I am at the same time unconscious of how American culture, particularly its food, has been largely influenced by other cultures. It has made me reflect on how this type of culture exchange is an integral part of our society that we simply take for granted because it has become so common that we no longer ponder on how other cultures influence an everyday habit, such as eating. Further, it is amazing how food from other culture becomes a staple in American diet but is adapted to become “more American” or best suited for Americans. For example, the American version of pizza would be heavily loaded with toppings whereas the Italian pizza would be a simple concoction of dough, cheese and tomatoes. If I will stretch this concept to American’s obsession with consumerism, it can be translated to how American society perceives its dominance over accumulation and consumerism.

It is interesting to note how some of the popular practices from other cultures have also made their way to American mainstream culture that they no longer seem alien but are assimilated into common habits or customs. For example, in a recent birthday party that I have helped arranged for a friend’s nephew, we bought a piñata and it only occurred to me that this is a Mexican influence. The children who were at the birthday party were not unfamiliar with this object either, because it is widely acknowledged as common in American customs. They revel in this type of activity without knowing that this is rooted in a Mexican tradition. Of course, this is not a disadvantage at all and is in fact can be interpreted as American’s affection for accepting what is vibrant and fun.

Fashion in American society is also influenced by other cultures. For instance, I often see a lot of Americans wearing fashion inspired by other cultures, such as Navajo-inspired clothing. Accessories such as beadworks, feathers and turquoise jewellery are also common in American fashion and have Navajo influences.

Language is intrinsic to the expression of culture. Through another exploratory exercise of listing words overheard (appendix 2), I learned that Americans may not realize that there are bits and pieces of expressions influenced by Chinese heritage that have been appropriated into mainstream banter. Words like chop chop (which means quickly or hurry up), chow (to eat), losing face (to be humiliated), brainwashing (to force someone to change their beliefs, principles of attitudes) and the expression “long time no see.” While it is easy to dismiss these words as clearly American, for the conspicuous reason that they are in English, it is interesting to note that their origin were largely Chinese. For instance, when we think of the term “long time no see,” and dissect its syntax, it will clearly not make the grade. According to Partridge and Beale (202), this warm salutation is widely supposed to have derived from the Mandarin phrase hǎojiǔ bùjiàn (好久不见), which literally means “very long no see.”

Another phrase that I have overheard is “lose face,” which is a translation of the Chinese phrase ‘tiu lien’ (Ho, 186). The phrase may also be expressed in English as “to suffer public disgrace” or to be powerless to display one’s face in public. As language is acknowledged as a vehicle of culture and often functions as an index of several cultural aspects, it is interesting how Americans use terms that are rooted in other cultures.

I was also reminded of a trend when Americans would tattoo Chinese characters, which have also developed into mass consumerism such as T-shirts or pendants with Chinese characters. Unfortunately it is possible that those who find that trend interesting actually an interest in, or understanding of their original cultural significance (McCullough, 12).

While thinking about how these cultural exchanges has made a large impact in American society today, I can think of human migration and the natural dynamics associated with it as the biggest prime mover. The transfer of ideas, traditions, customs and other cultural factors that were once alien to American society has profound impacts in how people think, react, and live (Coombe, 122). There are varied influences that the present American culture has borrowed from other cultures, which have been integrated into the mainstream culture, and have far-reaching social significances.

Factors such as migration are breaking the societal walls that separate different cultures from one another. It is critical to remember that culture is not static but is dynamic and is therefore an open platform for different ideas, beliefs and other elements that develop and change as the as the belief systems and ways of life of diverse groups adjust under further social influences including mass media and popular culture to produce different identities.

Works cited:

Coombe, Rosemary. Culture: Anthropology’s Old Vice Or International Law’s New Virtue?. Washington, United States, Washington: American Society of International Law, 1999. ProQuest Central. Web. 7 Dec. 2012.

Ho, David Yau-Fai “On the Concept of Face,” American Journal of Sociology, 81 (4),

867–84

McCullough, Michael. “The Second Chinese Wave [Immigrants’ Children Provide a New, More Accessible Market].” BC Business 25.7 (1997): 40-41+. ProQuest Central. Web. 8 Dec. 2012.

Partridge, Eric, and Beale, Paul. “Combination and Boundary Detection Approaches

on Chinese Indexing.” Journal of the American Society for Information Science 51.4 (2000): 340-51. ProQuest Central. Web. 8 Dec. 2012.

Appendix 1:

Exploration Exercise 1:

Things I have consumed for the week

Appendix 2

Exploration Exercise

Things overheard

Nursing Research Paper

Introduction

The current therapeutic model for the treatment of mental health disorders embraces a combination of pharmacological and psychological interventions. Psychoeducational methods are employed in clinical procedures for all mental health disorders and are critical to integrated health care (Bedell, Hunter and Corrigan, 2009). Creamer and O’Donnell (2008) refer to psychoeducation as education which is specially targeted to psychological health and aims to produce changes in an individual’s knowledge, attitudes, and skills to improve health outcomes.

This study is aimed at discussing what psychoeducation is, its role in clinical settings, its efficacy and how nurses figure in employing techniques attributed to psychoeducation. The study draws from evidence-based literature, including meta-analyses and research papers in the field.

Opportunities for psychoeducation in clinical settings

It is common practice to inform patients with any chronic disorder to be informed about their illness, prognosis and treatment. For instance, patients with diabetes will be educated on their treatment and how they can help manage the situation and not aggravate their condition. This concept is psychoeducation and is similarly rendered to patients dealing with mental health problems, albeit in different modes or techniques. Any type of intervention that educates patients and their families with the hope of improving their long-term outcome is classified as psychoeducation and is established to provide patients the chance to connect with their clinicians about their treatment and the processes involved (Tredget and Svobodova 2013).

There are evidence-based studies done in conducting psychoeducation in clinical settings. For instance, research indicates that patients with schizophrenia benefit from gaining knowledge about their illness. Xia, Merinder and Belgamwar (2011) point out that that psychoeducational intervention considerably shortened recurrence, improved medication observance, amplified agreement with mental health services, and an enhanced outlook in life among patients with schizophrenia.

Donkar et al (2009) also suggests that psychological interventions like leaflets can be easily distributed to a large number of people at low cost through general practice and these kind of written delivery modes (websites, leaflets or emails) are easy to implement and are safe. Crowley, Rose, Smith, Hobster and Ansell (2008), discussed the usefulness of running the program within mental health services. The program will attract the clients to measure their understanding of illness such as psychosis, anti-psychosis medication, stress and relapse and misperception; through this intervention, they can be more aware of their illness and potentially identify the early symptoms

Appendix A shows a table indicating a list of several goals associated with psychoeducation for people with mental health problems. This includes extensive goals such as medication adherence, understanding stress vulnerability and coping mechanisms and reduction of relapse and rehospitalisation.

Effectiveness of psychoeducation

Psychoeducation plays an important role in emotional and behavioural change. A strong research base has recognised the valuable results of psychoeducational care.

McFarlane, Dixon, Lukens and Lucksted (2003) published study results drawn from more than 30 randomised clinical trials and concluded the results to have direct positive impacts on relapse rates, improved recuperation, and enhanced family welfare. The authors cite remarkable outcomes of psychoeducational interventions for schizophrenia, such as a relapse range of 15% for participants.

Aho-Mustonen et al, (2009) raised the significance of group psychoeducation, whereby patients with similar illness can benefit from the intervention with the shared knowledge that they are not alone in their condition. It is believed that peer learning can influence a positive outcome.

The results of the systematic review conducted by Cuhadar and Oclay (2014) show that patients can benefit from psychoeducation and cognitive behaviour therapy. The benefits include medication compliance, improved patient adherence to prescribed treatment regimens and a decrease in the number of relapse and duration of hospital visits.

Elder, Katie and Nizette (2013 p.492) concur, citing psychoeducation is aimed to help patients and their families with a view to improving their long-term health outcome. Patients and their family members can have a chance to change their ways of thinking about mental illness and consequently reduce the burden of stress. Further, the same authors found that psychoeducation is cost-effective as it helps decrease relapse rates and improve medication adherence among people with mental illness.

Caregivers who are recipients of psychoeducation also benefit with a decreased rate in depressive symptoms Ozkan et al (2013). However, Pinquart and Sorensen (2006) argue that psychoeducation interventions have diminutive effects in reducing the of depression rate among male caregivers as men are less likely to acknowledge negative feelings.

In a study participated by 441 patients treated with bipolar disorder randomised to either a comprehensive treatment programme or usual treatment care, Simon and colleagues (2005) examined the effectiveness of a multifaceted care management program, including a structured psychoeducational program. The researchers concluded that a methodical care program has a significant reduction of risks of mania over 12 months, but with unremarkable effect on the depressive symptoms. The psycheducational interventions comprised five weekly sessions, succeeded by twice-monthly sessions for the remaining time. The five weekly sessions dealt with the attributes of bipolar disorder, including prompts and premature indications of relapse, and self-management approaches for relapse. The twice-monthly sessions used problem-solving practices to attain specific aims in everyday living.

However, there are studies that show psychoeducation does not solve all problems ensuing from dealing with mental health problems. Mueser et al (2002) reviewed four randomised controlled trials employing comprehensive psychoeducational techniques and found out that while these techniques have helped the participants gain more knowledge about mental health problems, there was no direct correlation in affecting other outcomes. Consistent with these findings, Whitehead and Russell (2004) established that simply educating patients and those who they come in contact with does not by design shape changes in behavioural changes. In addition, Mueser et al (2002) cite that family members may exhibit anxiety when educated that patients can self-manage at times and may feel that their relative is not ready to assume a more accountable position in the treatment or recovery. Family members may also show concerns that psychoeducation takes the place of recognised medical and psychosocial treatments, or may even regard the idea of recovery out of reach.

In another study, Sin and Norman (2014) indicate that psychoeducation has less effect in dealing with deeply entrenched concerns, especially when family members are reluctant to talk about their burden. They further analysed that psychoeducational interventions appear to work better when offered after working hours as well as when two different sessions are offered, adding flexibility. In addition, psychoeducation that integrates ethnic-cultural concerns and issues, when needed, are critical in elevating family members’ satisfaction.

Role of nurses in psychoeducational interventions

The ultimate goal of psychoeducation is to produce a positive change in the knowledge and behaviour of both the patients and other intended recipients such as the patients’ family members, caregivers and formed psychoeducation groups (Solomon, 2008). Nurses employ psychoeducational intervention to help patients cope with their mental health problem-related underperformance, educate patients, families and caregivers in understanding the breadth of the illness and what can be done to mitigate risks, avoid relapse and manage stress (Segal, Williams and Teasdale 2002). This is based on the recovery-oriented concept that the patients and their families are collaborators with the health care team in the treatment of the mental health problem. Through psychoeducation, the knowledge imparted to patients, families and caregivers can be used to foster patient autonomy and achieve a more positive and long-term health-related effects.

In psychoeducation intervention, the information about the diagnosis and treatment, self-management abilities and methods are delivered by nurses to help patients avoid relapse (Tredget and Svobodova 2013). According to Stafford and Colom (2013), psychoeducation is a flexible intervention that is based upon the patients’ needs. Its core is to encourage patients with tools that allow them to be more active in their treatment or recovery process. The article presented by Stafford and Colom (2013) discusses four fundamental principles of psychoeducation: patient/therapist communication, flow of information, patient involvement and a trusting relationship. An example of a psychoeducational intervention that nurses can employ is a discussion of how medication can reduce symptoms or demonstrating reminder or calendars, which subsequently can lead to adherence.

Using a variety of ways, such as written, visual or online, nurses can help maximise the influence and retention of the intended message by providing information to patients, their families and carers. According to Smith, Jones and Simpson (2010) psychoeducational approaches should also be personalised in order to organise a goal-oriented plan for the patient and target specific problems. They also cite that effective family psychoeducation comprises compassionate engagement, education on medical and community resources and ongoing support.

Psychoeducational interventions may include adapting techniques that instill skills such as teaching a patient or a group to maintain their morning hygiene or get enough sleep. In addition, nurses can help patients’ family members or caregivers understand how to minimise or eliminate stigmatisation. Stigmatisation carries with it an inaccurate and hurtful depiction of patients with mental health problems as violent, laughable or inept. In some cases, patients develop self-stigma or the ensuing acceptance of discriminatory perceptions of other people. This poses a problem as this can lead to lack of enthusiasm to ask for treatment, emotional and social isolation, undue dependence on others, and reduced sense of self. By educating patients’ families and caregivers, nurses can be instrumental in removing obstacles to understanding and digesting complex and emotionally laden information.

Apart from one-on-one and family-oriented psychoeducational approach, group psycheducation exists to help people with mental health problems interact with participants who experience similar problems. Participants may potentially provide mutual support to each other through sharing of their experiences. Group psychoeducation which have participants at differing phases of the mental health problem can offer beneficial peer education for all the participants. Group psychoeducation rely on narrative frameworks of communication, wherein participants are encouraged to share their experiences in order to help them recognise their personal strengths as well as stimulate plans for action and development. Nurses play a role in either disseminating information or referral advice, such as handing over a leaflet to a patient or encouraging them to attend a group psychoeducation; in some cases, they may also be facilitators in group psychoeducation.

When interventions cover health education, psychological support and are multifaceted, they are considered comprehensive. On the contrary, information-only interventions in general have a short duration and lower impact (Faller et al. 2013). Nurses can employ techniques such as problem-solving and role-playing as enrichment to the presentation of information.

Conclusion

There is more evidence that shows psychoeducational interventions are beneficial to broaden the impact of care provision to patients with mental health problems. Among many others, studies highlight a reduced rate of relapse and improved medication adherence with patients. In addition, family members and caregivers can also benefit greatly from psyschoeducation, such as understanding the nature of the mental health problem at a deeper level, coping up with stress and burden and managing periods of transition and crisis. While no study with conclusive evidence shows how pyschoeducation plays a role in diminishing stigmatisation, it is a recognised goal of this type of intervention.

Nurses have a direct role in implementing psychoeducational interventions. Pyschoeducation can be conducted on a one-on-one basis; they can be family-oriented; or they can be done in a group setting. They can be facilitators or providers of information. They can customise plans that include ways to help the patients and their families cope up with the burden associated with the mental health disorder. They may be agents of change as they try to help both patients and family members in dealing with their circumstances as well as in making health care decisions.

References:

Bedell, Hunter and Corrigan, 2009. Current approaches to assessment and treatment of persons with serious mental illness. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice. Vol. 28, No. 3, 217-228, viewed 1 April 2014

Corrigan PW, Watson AC. Understanding the impact of stigma on people with mental illness. World Psychiatry 2002;1:6–20

Faller, H., Schuler, M., Richard, M. Heckl, U., Weis, J. and Kuffner, R. Effects of Psycho-Oncologic Interventions on Emotional Distress and Quality of Life in Adult Patients With Cancer: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Clinical Oncology. February 20, 2013 vol. 31 no. 6 782-793

McFarlane WR, Dixon L, Lukens E, Lucksted A. Family psychoeducation and schizophrenia: a review of the literature. J Marital Fam Ther. 2003;29:223-245.

Mueser KT, Corrigan, PW, Hilton DW, Tansman B, Schaub A, Gingerich S, et al (2002) Illness management and recovery: A review of the research. Psychiatric Services, 51(10), 1272-1284.

Pinquart, M. Sorensen S. 2006. Helping caregivers of persons with dementia: which interventions work and how large are their effects? International Pschogeriatrics, 18:4, 577-595, viewed 1 April 2014

Segal ZV, Williams JMG, Teasdale JD (2002) Mindfulness and the Prevention of Depression: A Guide to the Theory and Practice of Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy. Guilford Press, New York.

Sin, J. and Norman, I. Psychoeducational Interventions for Family Members of People With Schizophrenia: A Mixed-Method Systematic Review. In Pedersen, T. (2014). Schizophrenia Caregivers Benefit from Early Psychoeducation. Psych Central. Retrieved on April 2, 2014

Smith, D., Jones, I. And Simpson, S. Psychoeducation for bipolar disorder 2010 Advances in Psychiatric Treatment (2010) 16: 147-154 doi: 10.1192/apt.bp.108.006403

Solomon P.2008. The efficacy of case management services for severely mentally disabled clients. Community Mental Health Journal, 38, 163-180.

Tredget J, Svobodova M (2013) Group psycho-education for bipolar disorder. Nursing Times; 109: 5, 21-23, Retrieved 1 April 2014

Whitehead D, and Russell G (2004) How effective are health education programmes ―resistance, reactance, rationality and risk? Recommendations for effective practice. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 41(2), 163-172.

Appendices

Appendix A: Goals of psychoeducation

Source: Psychiatric Times, An Evidence-Based Practice of Psychoeducation for Schizophrenia, 2012. Retrieved from http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/articles/evidence-based-practice-psychoeducation-schizophrenia

Literature Review

The Theory of Change: Strategic and Structural Change and How They Impact Organizations

Introduction

The process of change in an organization is repeatedly construed as complex, dynamic and at times challenged by opposing sides. Of all the various changes that an organization has to go through, there will be changes that will take the company to a different structure or mindset, or will indicate the need for substantive adjustment and often infer unrelenting challenge those who are involved (Starbuck, 1983). There is a wealth of research that highlights the persistence of multiple, divergent and on different levels contending inference of meaning, segmental changes processed and different debates on types of organizational changes (Galvin, 2002; Greenwood et al, 2002). March (1981, p.564) described “theories of change are theories of action,” and recommended that a good policy of presenting the intricacy of change has a foundation in understanding the basic process observations.

This paper aims to discuss the theory of change in an organization with a focus on how structural and strategic changes are performed and how they impact organizations, and looking at their significance and application on existing organizations.

Change Theory and its Practical Implications in Contemporary Organizations

Much like in any living organism, change is determined as an inevitable and an essential element in survival; and so the same principle applies to organizations. Likewise, change either prescribed or conductive, may take place in a single unit, the interface of several units or the association among units. The theory of organizational change can be categorized into four broad classes, namely evolutionary, dialectic, life cycle and teleological (Van de Ven and Poole, 1995). The top management is regarded as one of the best precondition for strategic change (Starbuck, 1983). Evolutionary change refers to the continuous cycle of alteration, preservation and selection. The dialectic theory refers to how an organization reacts to competing values and opposing forces; with its basis that there is always contradiction and this precipitates change. The life cycle theory is defined as a forecasted linear sequence of events necessary for an organization to go through and is based on the biological concept of natural selection processes. And lastly, the teleological theory of change is concerned about how an organization deliberately plans goal targets, set action plans and fortifies its collaboration with internal and external structures. This is also characterized by following a prescribed goal-setting mechanism.

A case study done by Ryan and Kyua (2011) on how Aegon, now recognized as one of the world’s largest life insurance and pensions companies, started its branding, a corporate strategic change, to produce brand awareness, and how it has successfully done so. Some of the major key changes were simplifying fiscal policies while improving its customer service, developing the workforce and creating a distinctive brand that will stand out in the market. Through several stages the major changes were implemented with the ultimate goal of building up its reputation. Some of the key elements were promotion and campaigns, good media relations and by launching new and pioneering products. For instance, a product called 5 for Life annuity combines a popular product with an innovative twist, helping their customers look at retirement income with a new shorter premium tenure requirement. AEGON has responded to the goals they have set through evolutionary theory and by streamlining and strengthening its brand in the UK. Change is inevitable and when they happen, the patterns of morale, behaviours and business culture also change. For Ageon this cycle was embraced and they were compelled to move positively so as to remain competitive in an increasingly challenging market.

The Theory and Practice of Change Management

There are numerous studies conducted to show that major external forces affect change in an organization. Some of these instances include significant budget cuts, mergers and acquisitions, retrenchment or major restructuring, decreased in market share and sharp drop of customer service levels. In order to evolve to a different organizational structure, it is typical for organizations to undergo different changes, whether procedural, structural or strategic. Because these types of changes are critical to the life of any organization, there have been numerous studies and researches done on the topic of change management, which is recommended reading for anyone who has interest in the dynamic process involved in coping up with strategic and structural changes.

On the most basic level, change management is identified as a set of procedures that is employed to ensure that substantial changes are executed in a controlled and efficient mode (Koll, 2008). Changes processes can either be transformational or situational. Bridges (2003) describes the major variances between change and transition. Change is a way in which things will be made different and transition is how you manage to move people through the different stages of change in order for the change to have positive effects. Further, change is a shift in the externals of any known condition, for example, moving a business to a different location, scrapping an old rewards program and setting up a new one or promoting an employee.

By contrast, transition is the mental and emotional transformation that employees will have go through in order to renounce former arrangements or belief systems or what they are used to and commence new belief systems or basically start to get used to new ones. It is also important to analyse the profound implications of how change and transition are both important topics, with the understanding of the roles that they play in an organization. For example, change is composed mainly of events that are tangible and visible and may happen in a few days or may take place organically; whereas transition refers to the psychological process, which may or may not have visible manifestations. Change is in general concerned with the outcome of what an organization wants to attain, whereas transition is mostly concerned about how to get through change and how to manage things or changes. In short, change management is learning how to get people through the process of transition.

Through change management there is hope to align people and culture with strategic and structural changes in an organization. Most companies would appreciate the value of implementing new changes without the onslaught of resistance, which could result to inadequate productivity. It has been recommended for organizations to undertake some projects that they can implement in order to handle resistance and manage people’s reactions would include sensitivity training, project consultation, survey and feedback, intergroup development and team building. It is also of great importance to forecast how people would react to change in order to generate involvement and engagement, and ultimately for the achievement of the goals that have transformative effects. In order to achieve sustainable change, it is critical to understand first and foremost the present state of the organization and thereafter followed by the execution of targeted, suitable and clear strategies. Transition would primarily be done in different stages and to achieve a positive outcome there must first be a good transitional plan in effect. This would lead to a fixed change in the organizational overall cultural structure and underpins the value of sustained development.

In a study done by Isabella (1992), the concept of trigger events, which are significant events in an organization that can transform values, mind sets, core beliefs and behaviours in managers whilst they try to comprehend the process of change. Managers must not only get on with the changes in operating processes but they must also learn how to position the organization by using these trigger events for meeting their core objectives and future goals. In the study it was also established the importance of controlling and addressing heard rumours through clear communication prior to any change taking place. During the period of the trigger event, managers are suggested to orchestrate the transition with much care and imperiously as well as to transform simple actions into emblematic messages. An example cited was General Motors when it implemented a corporate downsizing plan, which presented large system modifications and were met with complex challenges. It presented how General Motors has turned a trigger event which has determined its future success as a large auto company.

Institutional Mechanisms of Organizational Changes

Austin and Currie (2003) have proposed in their study that managers and leaders are so concentrated on change at a situational level; they may overlook the influences of other powerful forces at work. As such it is possible to create and implement intricate transition or program plans that have are all perfect from a project management standpoint, utilizing all the proper business planning model and theories. Organizations must move with efficiency and speed characterized by these certain models in order to move away from the former conditions that they previously have implemented. There is also an important facet placed on the transition from the impact of known strategies on organizational outcomes to finding out how strategies impact organization members on all levels. By employing this strategy it has been known to be useful in reconnecting broader structures in the organization to defining and commissioning different set of strategies and contributing to an emerging sociology of strategy (Uzzi, 1996).

Analysis of institutional mechanisms of organizational changes purports that they are affected by resource distribution, field governance preparations that are separate from organizational mechanisms (Barnes and Washington, 2002). There are also some institutional arguments that have been introduced, for example control and success strategies. The concept of institutional mechanisms that serves as a framework for organizational change are further divided into three categories: dominant logic-consistent activity, rationalized external charters and peer emulation (Washington and Ventresca, 2004). The first one is concerned about identifying central rationality that helps to resolve prevalent uncertainty and forms models that will inspire the acceptance of incipient strategies. The next mechanism of organization incorporation is concerned about outside institutional agreements or charters for incipient organizational fundamentals, which has its foundation on the strategies that can be adopted by field governance organization in developing and endorsing models and strategies that are not of coercive nature. The last mechanism is based on customary emulation procedures that are concerned on the effects of incorporation of strategies within a social and spatial spectrum.

Conclusion

The process of change, whether it is dynamic, organic, episodic or obstructive, cannot be undermined as a necessary tool in an organization’s growth. Future strategic change contends that organizations have variances in their resources and consequential attempts to implement and carry on with changes. It is also equally important to understand and conduct further research on the fundamental and key strategic change process that must be given equal theoretical deliberation. In order for organizations to cope up with the changes that have the potential to precipitate its culture system, it is recommended that there is an understanding of managing change by developing a broad spectrum of strategic steps that will eventually help mitigate any opposing forces or negative reactions. A sound team of top management combined with comprehensive project management models are some of the factors through which organizations can implement plans and attain their goals. Good leadership is critical because leaders must respond to the dynamic process of change in an inevitable change-driven environment; they must at all times be alert to responding to the convergence and congruence of the dynamism of change, with an emphasis on managing their subordinates during the transitional phase of structural change.

More importantly, organizations must be ready to face any challenging roads ahead and cope up with the tensions of external forces, such as economic downturn, fluctuation or the arrival of a forceful competition. They must also be ready to engage and embrace structural changes if they would like to see long term, positive changes in their culture. Strategic decisions must be made and revisited at the highest level without sacrificing the morale of the organization. By formulating strategies that will benefit the organization in managing changes, they are at a better position to adapt to external environmental forces while improving their competencies. Finally, organizations must be transparent with the changes that they need to implement. After all, much of the success of an organization in building its reputation and achieving its vision rests with its ability to manage its internal conflicts and structure.

References

Austin, J. and Currie, B (2003) Changing Organizations for a Knowledge Economy: The Theory and Practice of Change Management. Journal of Facilities Management 2(3) 16-20. Retrieved from https://library.semo.edu:2443/login?url=http://library.semo.edu:3173/docview/218927728?accountid=38003

Barnes, S. and Washington, N (2002) Managerial Insights: Moving from Small to Big. Portland: Scones and Danley.

Bridges, W. 2003. Managing Transitions: Making the Most of Change. Nicholas Brealey Publishing, USA

Galvin, T. L. 2002. Examining institutional change: Evidence from the founding dynamics of U.S. health care interest associations. Academic Management J. 45(4) 673-696.

Greenwood, R., C. R. Hinings. 1996. Understanding radical organizational change: Bringing together the old and the new institutionalism. Academic Management Rev. 21 1022-1054.

Isabella, L (1992) Managing the Challenges of Trigger Events: The Mindsets Governing Adaptation to Change. Business Horizon 35(2), 12-18 Retrieved from http://library.semo.edu:2343/ehost/detail?sid=47e80ae0-94aa-4ee9-bad2-0f8f41c12d98%40sessionmgr115&vid=1&hid=119&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=buh&AN=9706305950

Koll, J (2008) Degrees of Changes in Companies and their Underlying Reasons. Melbourne: Allen and Unwin.

Ryan, P. and Kyua, P. (2011) Implementation and Emrabcing Changes: A Case study of Aegon UK. Business Case Studies. Retrieved from http://businesscasestudies.co.uk/aegon/embracing-and-pursuing-change/in.html#ixzz2AwFastCG

Starbuck , W. H. (1983) Organizations as Action Generators. American Sociological Review, 91-102 Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2095147?uid=3737536&uid=2129&uid=2&uid=70&uid=4&sid=21101327744201

Uzzi, B. 1996. Coarse encounters of the sociological kind: Organizational fields as markets. Advance Strategic Management: The Embeddedness Strategy 13 419-430

Van de Ven and Poole (1995) Explaining Development and Change in Organizations. Academy of Management. 20 (3), 11-19. Retrieved from http://www.academia.edu/300397/Van_de_Ven_and_Pooles_1995_article_Explaining_development_and_change_in_organizations_Academy_of_Management

Washington, M. and Ventresca, M. (2004) How Organizations Change: The Role of Institutional Support Mechanisms in the Incorporation of Higher Education Visibility Strategies. Organization Science, January/February 2004 vol. 15 no. 1, 82-97; DOI: 10.1287/orsc.1030.0057

Essay

Account for plagiarism in universities in English-speaking countries: Comparative data based on available literature

It is widely recognized that the explosion in information and communications technology serves as a catalyst that can advance education through easy access and sharing of information. However it is also becoming increasingly concerning that the ease with which information is retrieved has contributed to numerous cases of plagiarism. This paper will explore the different literature that show the empirical and qualitative data that will support that plagiarism cases in universities are increasing.

While the assertion that plagiarism accounts are mostly based on anecdotal evidence, there are also convincing theories that substantiate that students are tempted to copy without proper acknowledgment because of the ease of access to information in the internet platform (Decoo, 2002; Roig & Caso, 2005). These cases appear only in higher education but also in distance learning. The rise of the networked and computer-mediated communications environment has provided an easy tactic for students to look up a specific topic, copy from a website or several sources and paste it into their projects without appropriately acknowledging their sources and presenting it as their own. McKenzie (1998) comments on the case of electronic plagiarism, “The New Plagiarism may be worse than the old because students now wield an electronic shovel that makes it possible to find and save huge chunks of information with little reading, effort or originality.”

In a pilot study conducted by Bamford and Sergiou (2005) among international students in a university in England, they concluded that plagiarism was prevalent among the group. However, it appears that some of the students were not aware that there are some repercussions that are rooted in ethical principles which occurred due to their perception of research and the acceptable university standard. In the same research study, some students were justifying that plagiarizing content is not as serious as their university professors construe it to be. Because they do not treat the matter seriously it is easy for them to commit plagiarism without remorse. The study further supports the argument that some international students are liable to plagiarizing content unintentionally due to complex cultural factors.

In order to gain a better understanding of the proliferation of plagiarism cases among students, it is important to take a look at the reasoning that students invoke when defending their violations. There are eight primary reasons that Devlin and Gray (2007) determined why plagiarism is becoming more prevalent among university students. These are poor or lack of admission criteria, deficient understanding of the implications of plagiarism, lack of educational expertise, instruction and education issues, idleness and expediency, ethical egoism, constraints, and education expenses. Under inadequate admission criteria, they cited that there are issues that surround at the outset of accepting students who do not have the necessary aptitude needed to complete their chosen degree; they either lack the skills or are not ready to undertake higher education courses. Rote learning is norm among international students, and evidence also suggest that some students were not aware that they are plagiarizing because the university has not clearly explained what it is and what its implications are. Under poor academic skills, it was noted that several factors predominantly contribute to conducting plagiarism, including poor time management and poor research or writing skills. Workload, timing and poor knowledge of the topic were elements contributing to teaching and learning issues. Pride in plagiarizing is rooted in the mindset of being the first one to submit or what is theorized as ethical egoism, or being the one with the answers. Pressure can be categorized into various subgroups such as family pressure, time or deadline pressure and societal pressure. Costs associated with university learning was a reason for plagiarism that appears to be grounded in ethical reasoning, such as having the resources to be able to afford paying for special tutors or going to websites that sell academic papers.

Further, plagiarism cases continue to increase due to the presence of websites that are capitalizing on ready-made research papers or organizing custom assignments that comply with the requirements of the needed project. Some arguments (McKenzie, 1998; McLafferty and Foust, 2004) indicate that traditional plagiarism was laborious, required some amount of proficiency, and was judiciously easier to detect by professors as compared with the new type of plagiarism. The Internet and its abundant resources have made research and academic writing simple and stress-free tasks with little value placed on originality.

With all the elements cited above and the research studies that serve as a background for the proliferation of plagiarism in universities, more faculty members are now aware of the prevalence of this transgression and are continuously finding ways to minimize and control this. Some faculty members saw their role as pivotal in order to have a starting point for establishing a university-wide strategy and set of measures (Harmeet and Bennington, 2012). The study also indicate that faculty members who think reprimanding students who are charged of plagiarism is an appropriate sequence and doing so is more likely to directly treat the situation. On the other hand, faculty members who take a more comprehensive attitude to plagiarism by simply expecting undergraduates to acknowledge sources for all academic writings propose strictly deal with plagiarism by recording it and reporting to the university administration. As counter measures to plagiarized body of work, some universities have utilized anti-plagiarism tools such as turnitin.com that serves both as a deterrent to plagiarism as well as an instructional tool that allows students to check any case of plagiarism content prior to turning it their final work to their professors. There are other digital tools that university faculty can rely on to check students’ papers for uniqueness, to facilitate assessment by their colleagues. The same tools can be used by the faculty to grade their students. By being in the frontline of understanding and limiting plagiarism among students, the faculty staff is empowered to create a more challenging academic environment for students.

Critical Discussion

Choose ONE of the management processes encountered during the course: Starting, Organising, Planning and Changing. Select a business organisation of your choice and explain how and how well it undertakes your chosen process

The idea of implementing and managing change in an organization involves different challenges and present significant implications for all those involved. This paper will present and discuss how the contact centre of InterContinental Hotels Group has undertaken the various elements of Changing, specifically the change in its systems processes. With the aim of critically evaluating the different stages of rolling out change, this paper will also look at how the organization has responded to its employee’s concerns during the transitional phase of the changes.

As the world’s largest hotels group, InterContinental Hotels Group runs various contact centres across the globe and this paper will focus on its contact centre based in Atlanta, Georgia. Employing over 200 people, the contact centre in discussion has planned to roll out several changes in its e-mail handling processes. As the management has envisioned a better customer service level, the first of its plans was changing the staff’s roster to seven days as opposed to the previous five day work week. By doing so, emails that come in during the weekends will have a turnaround time of 24 hours as long as there is manpower during the weekends. Research shows that customers are often concerned with the time it takes for their request to be completed for performance of service (Kelsey and Woods, 1998).

In another effort to increase its customer level service, the management has increased the number of emails that needs to be processed per agent per hour. Formerly the contact centre’s agents have to complete 10 emails per hour and have increased it to a minimum of 15 per hour. The idea was patterned after a more senior team that is being run in another location. The decision was spurred by the idea that as the agents are now more seasoned after 1 year of employment they are now familiar with the systems and processes and can handle more work load at a faster rate. This plan was deemed necessary as their customer inquiries and complaints were pouring in at a fast rate as more people now resort to sending emails instead of placing a call through the contact centre. An alternative way of tackling the concern would have been to increase the employee base. However this was not considered by the management as it would mean additional cost in training and overall head costs for the company.

The results were a mixture of disappointed staff alongside a fluctuating customer service level. Through the introduction of weekend work, customers who have pressing concerns are attended to in a timely manner. However, the effect on the staff has proven to be offsetting as they were not used to working weekends for a year. Resistance to change is often considered as a big concern for many strategic management and executives (Rainey, 2006). However in this instance, the management of the contact centre did not foresee resistance as they were focused on the customer side of the business and how the planned changes will improve their service satisfaction level.

According to Hiatt and Creasy (2003) it is critical to have an understanding of both organizational and individual management change concepts in order to run a successful organization. The latter is concerned with how individuals will perceive change, as they are ultimately the ones who will implement the changes needed. Furthermore, they emphasized that while it is important to overcome initial change it is doubly important to battle on-going resistance as this can develop into a threat to the company’s overall morale and ultimately affect customers. The implementation of the changes could have been successfully rolled out if the management has first sought ideas and feedbacks from their employees in order to make them feel more valued by hearing out what they have in mind. As the front liners in the company’s customer service, the employees would have gathered what they feel is important to their customers. Although the management was correct in emphasizing the importance of a timely response to customers’ emails, seeking feedbacks from their staff would have made the change process flow more smoothly if they have included their staff in the decision making process.

This may have been seen as a way of inclusive management, when the executives consult their subordinates for what they feel are best practices prior to instituting any change (Williams, et al., 2002). If a meeting was called before making any changes, wherein managers seek feedbacks from their staff they may even have been more acceptable to any changes as these plans were initiated and made by themselves. On the second change that was implemented, increasing the number of emails that has to be processed per hour, the company was also met with differing views. As the management has deemed it was the right time to implement this change since their staff has been with them for a year and were considered knowledgeable, it was a feasible idea. This was posed as a challenge to the employees; challenges are a great way maintaining a healthy workplace as people tend to get bored over time when they are used to the same routines (Kiffer, 2007).

While most of the employees received the challenge as an opportune tool in fostering their productivity level, it was also seen as a drastic move. An alternative way of introducing the plan was to increase the number of emails from 10 to 12 and eventually to 15. With the gradual process, it will be seen as non-obtrusive and not drastic.

The strategy of the contact centre’s management was heavily customer-centric and while this is beneficial to their customers the change could have been more fruitful if the management has undertaken various means of preventing and quelling resistance from their employees. Through an inclusive management the changes that were needed to be made would have been rolled out in a much smoother fashion. The management was solely focused on aligning their organizational structures and networks to achieving their delivery of business objectives when they could also have put a strong emphasis on managing the people side of change.

References:

Hiatt, J & Creasy, T. (2003). The People Side of Change. CO: Prosci, p. 10

Kelsey, R. & Woods, J. (1998). Customer Services best Practices: Case Studies and Strategies. MA: HRD Press

Kiffer, S. (2007) Strategic Innovation: Building on Success. South Shields: Euro Span Group. Pp.101-106

Rainey, D (2006) Sustainable Business Development: Inventing the Future Through Strategy Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Williams, A., Voodward, S. & Dobson, P. (2002) Managing Change Successfully: Using Theory and Experience to Implement Change. London: Thomson Learning pp. 40-48

Case study

Introduction

During economic downturn, organizations are forced to plan and implement various policies across the board that will optimistically cushion the implications of a financial crisis as well as act as safety measures for future risks. The top management of the company Consolidated Global Mining Services (CGMS) has made it clear that they are profusely losing money in the midst of the global financial crisis. While moderately considering plans of redundancies and layoffs, the company also acknowledges that its human capital is its best asset and would not want to lose its staff to its competitors.

Developing and maintaining human capital at various stages of an organization’s life is crucial for the organization to stay in the forefront. As CGMS has developed into a respected and dynamic company that employs over 900 staff, it is vital to analyze the different approaches that can be used towards understanding how its human capital plays a role in its future plans, both from strategic and practical angles. This paper will discuss the strategies that can help CGMS tackle its challenging dilemma from a Human Resources point of view.

Case Analysis:

Based on the course of conversation of the top management of CGMS, it can be concluded that they need to prioritize on cost-cutting measures, which in their discussion conveniently results to a discussion of reducing the size of its workforce. While the newly hired Human Resources director has brought the possibility of downsizing its staff through redundancies and layoffs, the Chief Information Officer brought to the table the difficulty of having too many people on the operations side of the business and less people on the service side.

It is clear that the top management of CGMS has an adequate recognition of the company’s problems, such as its financial problems where it is exhausting budgetary allowances in the midst of severe contraction in sales, an apparent inequity in its workforce distribution and its dilemma of losing its human capital after years of developing them. However, for a company that has been well established and has been in operations for 10 years and is widely recognized as an industry leader, it can positively make improvements in its human resources processes. For example, it was discussed that its current organisational structure is informal in the sense that there is no representative documentation showing what individual duties and job account covers. The Human Resources Director did not make any outright judgment as the employees were skilled professionals and the CEO clearly bestows a generous amount of trust to the company’s workers. While this is not clearly manifested as a problem, it is beneficial for the company to come up with the official documentation that delineates point by point the job responsibilities for every team member in order to build clear expectations on performance standards as well as recognize redundancy. It is therefore uncertain for the management to assume that there is a case for redundancy when they themselves have admitted that there is no clear job description documentation and that no one seems to know what everyone else is doing due to absence of supervision and the company’s overall trust to its employees.

While it is a veritable reason for the CEO to revel in the trustworthiness and loyalty of their employees, a second look in its human capital organisation is essential in ensuring a high level of efficiency. Another questionable detail that was not tackled in the arrangement of the case is what the previous Human Resources director has done to forecast the challenges of CGMS. The current HR director would have been able to provide solutions during the meeting if there was a mention of the previous projects undertaken.

Theories: Cutting costs without losing employees; Implementing Innovative Strategies

It is important to note that both the Chief Operating Officer and Chief Information Officer have noted there is an inequity in workforce distribution, as there has been an increasing demand in the service side of their business but not adequate manpower. As they consider their human capital as assets, it is valuable to consider strategic decisions from an investment perspective than a cost perspective. This means any cost involved in prospect strategies should be seen as an investment as they are recovered over time and the return normally far surpasses the preliminary disbursement.

In this scenario, it is the responsibility of Human Resources to come up with strategic plans to organize diverse measures of benefiting from its current pool of employees, instead of resorting to redundancies and layoffs. It is important to look at options of creating and transferring information and understand that knowledge can either be tacit or explicit and can be reassigned across sections of an organization. According to Merritt (2007, 15), there are several features that are germane to the application of knowledge within an organization that are required to create value for the organization. These are “transferability, capacity for aggregation, appropriateness, specialization in knowledge acquisition, and the knowledge requirements of production.” Much attention should be given to transferability and specialization in knowledge acquisition as these could give way to possible cross-section movement of employees within CGMS.

Furthermore, the company should also look into innovative budgetary strategies that may include improvement in waste management, cutting down on administrative expenses, modification of allocation of funds and improving negotiations with its suppliers.

Question 1: A new approach, a new capability

Once thought of as a mere back office task, Human Resources are now assuming a greater role in strategic business undertakings. In order to put into practice mid-term and long-term strategies in maintaining CGMS’ desired level of workforce and contribute to cost cutback, HR must present a detailed analysis and plans on human capital strategy, performance management, and change and culture management. The role of HR is reduce direct labour costs and improve efficiency through implementation of performance standards to which employee rewards can be put into practice based on a set of quantifiable productivity criteria (Holland, Hecker, and Steen, 2002, 73). The current approach of CGMS is building long-term relationship with its employees whose social characteristics are secured to the business and its objectives. These approaches can be incorporated into one model with the objective of driving higher performance and efficiency.

Question 2: Aligning strategic actions with business goals

As one of the essential functions of HR, strategic planning to develop its human capital is founded on three elements: the latent obtainability of talent, the capability to modify employee behaviour and a realistic scrutiny of current skills. As a first step, CGMS HR can optimize the efficiency of administrative practices by standardizing and assimilating business processes. Secondly, HR should have a set of key measures for effectiveness, such as cycle time for employment, error rates and employee turnover. Some other important measures that HR can also implement are employee engagement, measurement of key performance indicators and customer satisfaction (Larry and Safizadeh 1999, 380). Although the organization has noted that most of its employees appear to be satisfied with their job, there was no indication that this feedback came from the employees or was simply perceived by the management.

Research has shown that administrations that competently transmit knowledge as a resource within its divisions have higher productivity and a higher chance of survival (Hewlett 2002, 24; Kong and Thomson 2009, 358). One of the innovative strategies that HR can implement is cross-training, which can leverage employee motivation as well as provide a solution to the workforce imbalance in CGMS. Most managers assume that employee motivation can be won through financial rewards but research shows that a proficient and integrated administration within a good work atmosphere is the basis on which to construct employee motivation (Bortolon 2003, 18). An effective cross-training within departments can provide as a learning opportunity and identify potential talent within the current employee pool. Apart from precluding complacency and offering a professional progress opportunity, cross-training can be a way to rejuvenate company motivation through increased knowledge and performance (Dashgarzadeh et al. 2012, 458). As employees acquire more knowledge on different sections of the company, they share in achieving organizational objectives and advance communication and coordination with other employees.

Question 3: Building strategy through HRIS

Having a Human Resource Information System (HRIS) will be beneficial to CGMS in addressing its present dilemma as well as accommodating innovative strategies for future growth. HRIS is valuable for providing the company’s management not only with employment and retention approaches but also in using data from HRIS into larger-scale corporate schemes (Normalini,Ramayah and Kurnia, 2012, 607). These data can be used as an analysis tool. Further, the HRIS can simplify calculations for the business, including health-care costs, pay benefits, turnover rates and costs, return on human capital and human value added.

An HRIS program is also a good tool for leveraging skills, knowledge and competencies, innovating and adapting to change, training, new job development, and succession planning (Suresh 2006, 180). Further, their HR staff will be used more productively as they spend less time on administrative tasks and more time concentrating on core tactical accomplishments. Division heads and the employees will be privy to the majority of transactional activities, allowing HR to focus on contracting employees who can contribute to the company’s objectives. Personnel are notified of imminent compulsory training, and accomplishment of documentation requests are mechanically reorganised to the employee record.

Question 4: Workforce downsizing as a change management strategy

Reports advocate that the consequences of downsizing are misleading (Charles and Adelman 2010, 5; Brush and Donald 2005, 48). Downsizing has a negative effect on business memory and workers’ morale, upsets societal complexes, causes a forfeiture of information, and disturbs knowledge systems (Ivanovic, Galicic, and Krstevska. 2010, 920). Moreover, companies who resort to human capital decimation are forced to deal with the human and social aftermaths in a post-downscaling segment. The leading impetus of most downscaling undertakings is the instant hope for an abrupt drop of outlays and augmented levels of productivity, efficiency, effectiveness, and competitiveness.

There is not enough evidence to show theoretical understanding of downsizing-related layoffs as part of a company’s cost-reduction stages. In order to proceed with plans of downsizing, however, CGMS will first need to establish a cost-reduction stage where it can decrease operative expenses. After such time, identifying redundant jobs is a measure that can be taken to reduce the size of its workforce, which is legally compliant to labour laws. In order to authorise redundancies, the HR director has to justify with the management that every effort had been made to find suitable alternate employment within the CGMS for the individual involved. According to Hornstein (2009), “Redundancy occurs when an employer decides that the employer no longer wishes the job the employee has been doing to be done by anyone and this is not due to the ordinary and customary turnover of labour.”

Instead of resorting to layoffs, the company can devise creative ways that may help cut costs. These can include adopting unpaid vacation leaves for employees who would agree, sabbatical leaves, using vacation leaves as rewards instead of monetary compensation, cross-training measures across departments to transfer knowledge and increase productivity in areas where it is needed, and standardizing performance expectations.

Conclusion:

It is critical that in facing the challenges of workforce imbalance and financial difficulties, CGMS look at innovative ways of cost-cutting instead of simply resorting to a panacea of downsizing and layoffs. As the company has grown to be a respected industry leader, resorting to layoffs and redundancies will put the company at a disadvantageous position as it will have to deal with the post-downsizing effects that encompass social and individual consequences for the people involved as well as their colleagues who have stayed with the company.

The Human Resources of CGMS can instead look at measures that it can implement to take full advantage of its human capital through the use of a systematic HRIS and implementation of plans that will engage its employees.

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Annotated Bibliography

Psychosocial Impact of Stigma in Chronic Illness

Andrews, K. L., Jones, S. C. & Mullan, J 2013, ‘Stigma: still an important issue for adults with asthma, Journal of Asthma and Allergy Educators, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 165-171.

In this study, the authors from the University of Wollongong, Australia investigated the impact of stigma on asthma patients, based on the hypothesis that the stigma felt by these patients prevents them from engaging in effective self-management practices aimed at improving their asthma control. The study was in the form of a web-based survey designed using standard measures of asthma control derived from the Royal College of Physicians (UK) “3 Questions” (RCP3). Measures of asthma-related stigma were obtained using Stigma Scale for Mental Health. A total of 72 participants were recruited online through snowball sampling method.

The findings showed that there was a significant positive relationship between feelings of stigma and asthma control. This confirmed that high morbidity due to poor asthma control is strongly associated with feelings of stigma. Furthermore, majority of adult patients with asthma do not have proper control over their chronic illness. The patients reacted to stigma in several ways; denial, non-disclosure and pretending to be normal. This proved detrimental to their long-term health outcomes from the asthma. Stigma effectively prevented them from accessing health services as well as social support. The study showed that asthma-related stigma can lead to health behaviour problems that reduce quality of care.

Earnshaw, V.A and Quinn, D. M 2011, ‘The Impact of Stigma in Healthcare on People Living with Chronic Illnesses’, Journal of Health Psychology, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 157–168.

The two authors, from Yale University and University of Connecticut respectively, conducted this explorative study to assess the impact of stigma (internalised, anticipated and experienced) on healthcare access and quality of life for people living with various chronic illnesses, including asthma, diabetes, inflammatory bowel disease and irritable bowel syndrome. The study used 184 participants, all students from the University of Connecticut. Measures for the three forms of stigma were obtained using modified validated scales designed for people living with chronic illnesses. Healthcare access measure was based on frequency of doctor visits while quality of life measure used World Health Organization’s Quality of Life Scale.

The results showed that internalised stigma had a direct relationship with anticipated stigma as well as healthcare access and quality of life. On the other hand, experienced stigma had an indirect relationship with healthcare access and quality of life and a direct relationship with anticipated stigma. The authors say that these findings suggest that internalised stigma and experienced stigma work in different ways to impact on the well-being of those living with chronic illnesses. Internalised stigma has a direct impact on quality of life while the impact of experienced stigma on the same is dependent on healthcare access and anticipated stigma.

Taft, T. H., Keefer, L., Leonhard, C and Nealon-Woods, M 2009, ‘Impact of Perceived Stigma on Inflammatory Bowel Disease Patient Outcomes’, Inflammatory Bowel Disease, vol. 15, pp. 1224 –1232.

The authors were from Chicago School of Professional Psychology and North-western University in Illinois, USA. They evaluated how perceived stigma in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) impacted on their health outcomes. The study was in the form of a cross-sectional correlational research where 211 participants were recruited online. Measures for health-related quality of life (HRQOL) were obtained using the IBD Questionnaire. Treatment adherence was measured using the Medication Taking Behaviour Scale (MTBS), Self-esteem and perceived self-efficacy measured using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), psychological distress using the Brief Symptom Inventory-18 (BSI), and perceived stigma using Perceived Stigma Scale in IBS (PSS-IBS).

The findings revealed that people with IBD suffer perceived stigma with deleterious effects similar to those with other chronic diseases like mental illness, HIV/AIDS and psoriasis. Furthermore, perceived stigma was not just a result of experiencing symptoms of the disease since it affected both patients in remission and those with active symptoms. This suggests that perceived stigma is probably an enduring factor for people with IBD regardless of their disease status. Furthermore, the cyclic-nature of the disease causes anticipation of future flare ups thus sustaining the levels of perceived stigmatization. Greater perceived stigma is more likely amongst those with severe symptoms.

Discussion

The above studies show that people living with different chronic diseases suffer stigma as an enduring factor in their lives. This stigma can either be perceived, experienced, or anticipated (Earnshaw & Quinn, 2011) and has a negative impact on the health outcomes of these patients. Internalised stigma comes from the extent to which the patient believes the negative perceptions and feelings associated with their disease while experienced stigma comes from how they are treated during their interactions with others (Bodenheimer, 2002). When either happens, the patient will start expecting to be stereotyped or discriminated thus developing anticipated stigma. When faced with stigma, patients with chronic diseases are likely to react in detrimental ways – denial, pretence or non-disclosure, which prevent them from accessing healthcare and social support (Andrews, Jones & Mullan, 2013).

Stigma has a harmful impact on the quality of life for people living with chronic illnesses and this is manifested through the healthcare setting (Earnshaw & Quinn, 2011). Patients who perceive or experience stigma in the healthcare setting are less likely to seek care and subsequently have a decreased quality of life. Internalised stigma is a major cause for concern in this case because once patients endorse stereotypes associated with their illness, they will anticipate such treatment from healthcare workers, and this prevents them from seeking healthcare (Taft et al, 2009). Internalised stigma needs to be targeted with appropriate interventions since it is an intrapersonal phenomenon. It has been shown that internalised stigma negatively affects quality of life irrespective of the psychosocial factors occurring within the healthcare setting (Earnshaw & Quinn, 2011).

The findings of the above studies show that stigma has harmful implications for nursing practice as a result of its negative impact on self-efficacy and patients’ access to healthcare and social relationships. This negative impact unfortunately leads to reduced quality of life and increased morbidity. Stigma can be reduced using various strategies, for example, peer support and social marketing (Sawyer, 2002). Peer support programs provide patients with the much-needed emotional and social support to enhance their self-efficacy towards promoting positive health outcomes (Bodenheimer, 2002). Social marketing presents an effective platform that can be used to overcome the societal effects of stigma. It can be used to target different audiences including healthcare providers, patients and the general public. Healthcare providers should be aware of the potential barrier created by perceived stigma for patients supposed to access healthcare. They can help build the patients’ self-efficacy through reassurance, encouragement, reinforcement and feedback (Sawyer, 2002).

References

Bodenheimer, T, Lorig, KR, Holman H, Grumbach K 2002, ‘Patient self-management of chronic disease in primary care’, Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 288, pp. 2469-2475.

Sawyer, S 2002, ‘Action plans, self-monitoring and adherence: changing behaviour to promote better self-management’, Medical Journal of Australia, vol. 177, pp. S72-S74.

Annotated Bibliography

Case Study

Critical Discussion

Essay

Literature Review

Nursing Research Paper

Position Paper

Project Management

Reflective Essay

Psychosocial Impact of Stigma in Chronic Illness